Visual Art in Greek Mythology Essay Example for Free

Visual Art in Greek Mythology Essay Visual workmanship is one of the most significant aspects of antiquated culture. Not exclusively is visual workmanship stylishly satisfying to the faculties, yet it helps us in getting a handle on the ideas of civic establishments and stories that we couldn't completely comprehend in basic content. Greek folklore has reared the absolute most excellent show-stoppers at any point made. These works recount to the tales they speak to in energetic structure, shading and style. One of the most acclaimed masterpieces speaking to Greek folklore started in 460-450 BC. This is the sculpture of Zeus. There are contentions about whether it is Zeus or Poseidon, since they are both flexible prospects, however for simplicitys purpose, let us expect it is Zeus. The sculpture of Zeus is one of extraordinary pride. He remains decisively. He gives off an impression of being in his 40s, however his physical body is solid and shapely. His very position is previously that requests consideration and regard. This speaks to his job: Zeus the main god. Zeus is solid, ground-breaking, and just. In the sculpture, Zeus is going to toss one of his lightning electrical discharges. His face is harsh and centered, as though he is genuinely focused on the current issue. He stands unashamed of his uncovered masculinity, which is illustrative of Zeuss character. Zeus is generally known for his inclination to spread his seed all through both the goddess world and the human lady world. It was viewed as a significant privilege to be a child or little girl of Zeus. Forever and after a day, in 1622, a stone carver named Gian Lorenzo made the figure Pluto and Proserpine. This model speaks to the narrative of the catch of Persephone by Hades. Hades, the Roman Pluto, is delineated holding Persephone, the Roman Proserpine, by her abdomen and thigh. Persephone is gotten some distance from Hades, driving his face away. She endeavors to wriggle liberated from his solid handle, a look of ghastliness and dread all over. It would appear this speaks to the second Hades carries her to the black market and discloses to her she is to be his sovereign. It is clear they are in the black market on account of Hades hound next to him. As Persephone drives him away, he nearly looks irritated at her refusal. It is clear she can't get away, for his body is clearly solid and strong, and both her feet are off the ground, however her endeavor is a feisty, decided one. This shows the amount she doesn't wantâ to remain with Hades in the black market. The agony she feels is so clear; her other arm is raised, as though going after a type of break, and her face is turned, as though she wouldnt even gander at him. The open mouth of Hades hound likewise shows that theres a battle going on, similar to it is yapping. There is so much rough, sexual vitality in this figure. It presumably likewise speak to the exact second before Hades violates Persephone. Moving further through time, the excellent artwork Cupid Kissing Psyche is made by Francois Gerard in 1798. This piece is totally hypnotizing. In the tale of Cupid, or Eros, and Psyche, Eros is instructed by his mom Aphrodite to shoot his bolts at Psyche and make her begin to look all starry eyed at a terrible animal since she is envious of her excellence. At the point when Eros sees Psyche, he himself becomes hopelessly enamored with her, and removes her to be his mystery lady of the hour. The main condition she should follow is that she can't see him, for she cannot have the foggiest idea about his actual personality. From the start Psyche is terrified, however starts to adore Eros, still accidentally. This work of art speaks to this phase of the story, where Psyches love for the unidentified Eros is developing. The very shading plan of this canvas is strongly quieting and tranquil. Mind sits in the midst of lovely view, gazing straight ahead. Eros is close to her, yet she doesn't appear to take note. His hands are so near her, however its difficult to tell whether he is contacting her or not. The delightful young people of Eros is clearly profoundly enamored with her. Despite the fact that Psyche can't see Eros, her face appears to detect him there, and there is no hint of dread. In spite of the fact that it is a painting of Eros and Psyche together, I accept the painter means for it to be a statement of their affection, and not an exacting scene. (Which means, Eros isn't really there adjacent to her. ) She is holding herself delicately, as though prizing a memory. Both their bodies are painted so delicately thus madly wonderful that the brain is overwhelmed by their adoration when seeing this work. In 1809, painter John Vanderlyn painted Ariadne Asleep on Naxos. Ariadne was a wonderful earthy colored haired lady who began to look all starry eyed at the saint Theseus. Ariadne supported Theseus in his butcher of the Minotaur, and consequently, mentioned to be his lady of the hour. Theseus acknowledged her offer, and in the wake of vanquishing the Minotaur, carried her with him. On the island of Naxos, notwithstanding, Theseus deserted her as she rested. This work of art speaks to the second Theseus cruises off, as found out of sight to one side. Ariadne dozes, loosened up on the ground, her body uncovered and loose. She looks tranquil, as though she is cheerfully longing for her darling, Theseus. The red shades utilized around her body give her a sexual vitality, but then she lays on a fabric of white, speaking to her guiltlessness and virginity. Maybe she is longing for her hotly anticipated wedding with Theseus and the introduction of her sexuality. It is grievous as in she might be thinking every one of these things, while her life partner is cruising off without her and she has no clue. But since she is depicted in such an attractive way, it nearly implies that there will be another person. As one story goes, the god Dionysus discovers her on Naxos and makes her his significant other. There is an explosion of light where Theseus is cruising endlessly, speaking to an adoration that leaves her. However, there is another explosion of light originating from the other way, covered up in the left, enlightening her body, perhaps speaking to an adoration that discovers her. Painted all the more as of late, in 1908, is Apollo and Daphne by John William Waterhouse. The story behind this artwork starts with a discussion between the sun god Apollo and the divine force of affection, Eros. Apollo inquires as to why such an adolescent like Eros is hefting around weapons of war, and Eros gets outraged. Eros shoots Apollo with the gold-tipped bolt, making him fall urgently enamored with the wood fairy Daphne, while he shoots Daphne with the lead-tipped bolt, causing her to detest Apollo. Apollo seeks after Daphne and she dismisses him. Daphne is before long changed into the shrub tree, and Apollo is seen pronouncing his affection to this tree. This composition shows the finish of the pursuit. Apollo is going after her, his face bolted to hers. In his other hand is his instrument, prepared to charm her. Daphne looks troubled and scared in view of Apollos industriousness. The roots start to hold her set up, starting the change. In their faces, you can see the aftereffects of Eros bolts. Apollo is so centered around winning Daphnes expressions of love that there is by all accounts nothing else on the planet for him to do. Daphne appears to be so repelled by him, you can nearly hear her shout Leave only me! just by seeing her face. These five models truly express the significance of visual workmanship in folklore. Since we can see these pieces at whatever point we need, we can remember the accounts at whatever point we need too. They permit us to truly observe the topical feeling behind every story and every god, goddess, sprite and mortal. They take the immortals and make them, well, godlike.

National Assemblies of Kuwait Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

National Assemblies of Kuwait - Essay Example The restriction campaigned for a parliament, by requesting of the legislature in 1950s, by means of the administration of Ahmad al-Khatib and his development, National Culture Club. 1967 races were damaged by abnormalities with respect to the administration, which required the requirement for new races. Accordingly, new political race was held in 1971, yielding a passive gathering with only four individuals from the resistance, barring the pioneer of restriction, Al-Khatib. The get together demonstrated a significant restricting power for the amir organization. The fourth get together decisions happened in 1975 bringing forth a gathering that enthusiastically contradicted the administration than its forerunner. Discontent with the restriction of the get together, amir broke up it in 1976 giving new ultimatums for press and open shows. The fifth get together existed somewhere in the range of 1981 and 1985. It additionally delivered a functioning resistance like the past gatherings. In any case, divisions over sacred changes among different issues prompted the destruction of the get together energized by extraordinary strict restriction assurance. The 6th get together political decision was held in 1985, in which the administration evaluated its Islamists support by urging Beduin contenders to bar Islamists. Not at all like previously, the legislature gave the patriots space to partake, which saw the recovery of Al-Khatib. Al-Khatib and three different patriots developed successful in the races. Following its energetic restriction to the admi nistration and assurance to expel degenerate priests from office, the 6th gathering additionally confronted the chance disintegration. Seeing that the get together had dove a lot into the decision family, amir suspended the get together. The get together was in the long run broken down after viciousness experienced in 1985. Be that as it may, the get together stayed compelling resistance image much after its conclusion and constrained extension. Of the considerable number of gatherings, the 1981-1985 get together appeared to be all the more intriguing. Aside from being vociferous like its antecedents, the get together was far

Learning Difficulties for People With PTSD

Learning Difficulties for People With PTSD PTSD Related Conditions Print Learning Difficulties for People With PTSD By Matthew Tull, PhD twitter Matthew Tull, PhD is a professor of psychology at the University of Toledo, specializing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Learn about our editorial policy Matthew Tull, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on June 24, 2019 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes & Risk Factors Treatment Living With In Children David Schaffer / Getty Images If you have PTSD, you may know that it can increase your risk for learning difficulties. Like many people, you may tend to think of learning difficulties as largely concerned with education. But learning difficulties can also involve such important areas of your daily life as memory and attention. Specific Types of Learning Difficulties in PTSD If you do have memory or attention problems, you arent alone: Many people with PTSD struggle with these learning difficulties. Here are some examples. How are you at remembering words, facts, and details of things that happened in the past? Compared with people who dont have it, people with PTSD tend to have problems with remembering: Words (verbal memory)Facts and other important information, such as appointmentsSpecific details of past events, especially with regard to traumatic events They may also have difficulty concentrating and be easily distracted, which makes it hard for them to pay attention when doing tasks. Difficulty concentrating is one of a number of common symptoms of PTSD. Why Does PTSD Affect Memory and Attention? There are a number of reasons why people with PTSD may have these learning difficulties. High Levels of Anxiety. When youre feeling very anxious, it can interfere with the way your brain encodes information into your memory. That can make it harder for you to remember minor details. High anxiety levels may also limit your ability to notice things that are going on around you or interfere with your ability to focus on a task. This can happen when you feel so anxious about being anxious that that becomes all or most of what you can think about.Depression and Substance Abuse. A person with PTSD who has either or both of these disordersâ€"especially substance abuseâ€"is even more likely to have problems with memory and attention.Problems Sleeping. As you may know, many people with PTSD have difficulty getting to sleep and staying asleep. If that sounds like you, and youre less alert during the day as a result, youre likely to be less able to remember things and focus your attention effectively. PTSD: Symptoms and Diagnosis Getting Help for Learning Difficulties If you have PTSD and are having problems with your memory or ability to focus your attention, there are a number of easy techniques that you can use to remember and focus better. You may also benefit from learning techniques for controlling your attention, such as mindfulness. And heres some good news: Your PTSD  therapy to reduce your symptoms may also help with any learning difficulties you have. Its been shown that people who are successfully treated for their PTSD often find that other areas of their lives improve as well. If you think you may have one or more learning difficulties in addition to PTSD, and you dont yet have a healthcare provider who can work with you to set up a treatment plan, it may be time to look for one. If youre not sure how to do this, ?there are several websites that offer free searches. Use them to help you locate mental health providers in your area who treat people with PTSD. PTSD: Coping, Support, and Living Well

Pakist Pakistan For Counter Terrorism And Sino Pak...

Pakistan by virtue of its geographic location started its international collaborated in 1990s during the Afghan war. After the war ended, it had to face the post war consequences as a burden of more than 3 million Afghan refugees, ever growing drug trade in neighborhood as well as Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan. Indeed the militia which fought against erstwhile USSR in Afghanistan was abruptly abandoned who found safe haven along Pakistan Afghan borders. After 9/11 the situation got complicated, Pakistan was to be fighting against those who were once trained in collaboration with CIA. Despite worst domestic pressures, Pakistan continued its commitment to international community in its counter terrorism efforts. Beside others, Ramzi Yousef and Mir Amal Kansi, the prime perpetrator of terrorists’ attacks on World Trade Center and United States embassies in Africa were apprehended by Pakistan. â€Å"Despite being the victim of terrorism itself, Pakistan has been cooperating with the international community and the US in counterterrorism efforts† . After 9/11 China sought cooperation from Pakistan for counter terrorism and Sino-Pak cooperation and ‘combating terrorism, separatism and extremism’ agreements were signed in 2005 and 2006. Meanwhile, Pakistani forces killed Hasan Mahsum, head of the East Turkestan Islamic Movement and captured many suspecting to carry out terrorist attack in China. Role of Pakistan in its collaborative efforts fighting terrorism

Children And Obesity - 783 Words

31% of children aged between 2 and 19, according to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), are overweight. Half of this population is considered to be obese. The rates of obesity, however, vary by age. 8 percent of children between 2 and 5 are obese. Among those between 6 and 11, 18 percent of these children are obese (Segal, Rayburn, Alejandra, 2016). Finally, 21 percent of those 12 and 19 years are obese. As mentioned before, obesity among children between 2 and 5 are decreasing. But those among age groups 11 and 19 are increasing. This may explain the constant rate of obesity among children. Variation in Gender, Race and Ethnicity The prevalence of obesity appears to have levelled off since 2003. However,†¦show more content†¦Research shows that in 2012, the prevalence of the overweight and obese children is greater among the publicly insured that those who are privately insured. The prevalence among both is 42 percent and 27.3 percent respectively. Among those who are uninsured, the prevalence of overweight children increased from 32.4 percent to 37.6 percent between 2007 and 2012 (Segal, Rayburn, Alejandra, 2016). Health insurance is correlated with better health conditions. Factors Associated With Overweight and Obesity Obesity is considered to be caused by different factors including genetic, environmental, and behavioural. Other factors can be mitigated at the individual and family level. Such factors include the amount of energy intake, the amount of physical activity, and sedentary behaviour. Obesity results from positive energy, where one takes in more calories burned. Research shows that the quality of diet remains poor among children with poor socioeconomic status. The overall diet quality, however, in the United States still remains poor. The prevalence of sugary drinks and food in children’s diet is a significant factor. The dietary guidelines for Americans claim that solid fat intake and added sugars are above the healthy recommendations (Government of the District of Columbia Department of Health, 2014). Intakes of essential nutrients such as calcium, potassium, dietary fibreShow MoreRelatedObesity And The Rate Of Children Obesity1585 Words   |  7 Pagesyears, the continuous ris ing in the rate of children obesity in America is worrisome. According to the centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the rate of children obesity rise from 7% in 1980 to 12% in the course of twenty years. Many people might not compare obesity to other problems happening in the world, and deem it as important, but what they do not understand is the detrimental consequences of this epidemic on each individual facing it. 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Taking DécorFurniture.com to the Next Level of E-Commerce Free Essays

DecorFurniture. com will utilize an off the shelf CRM application in lieu of an ERP system. Customer Relationship Management applications will enhance the marketing, sales, and customer service aspect of DecorFurniture. We will write a custom essay sample on Taking Dà ©corFurniture.com to the Next Level of E-Commerce or any similar topic only for you Order Now com by handling the data about the company’s old and future customers. The CRM application will manage the call center function to be added to the company. This will help in reaching the goal of improving the company’s relationship with its customers. Proper training will be given to the agents, briefing them on the CRM application’s goal of improving relationships in order to ensure that the cost of the program will not have to balloon out of proportion before showing results. Business Processes Business Process Improvement is an essential part of Decor Furniture. There are numerous of individuals surfing the internet in this world of fast-paced technology. There is a need for Decor Furniture to keep up with the demands of these individuals, potential customers and old patrons. There is a need, therefore, for flexibility in changing the status quo of the e-business. Web design, marketing strategies, web services used, and other applications integrated in the company’s trade must be constantly reviewed for effectiveness in the business’ growth. The online community is a fast-changing thing and Decor Furniture must constantly keep up through the upgrading of software and mechanisms. Business processes constantly monitor workflows or the way the business’ transactions flow from the start to the end. XML will be used for the company’s site. This will help in keeping the web site flexible to change given the simplicity and universality of the code. It will be used as the language to connect the workflow processes involved. The use of Wf-XML will reduce integration costs. It will also be easier to â€Å"operate† as it can be handled by anyone who is XML literate. Decor Furniture will also make use of a language translating web service in order to provide its services in different languages online. This will help in the goal of reaching more individuals with the products it offers. Business Intelligence Planning and Funding As a start-up e-business stemming from an offline company with a small target of customers, Decor Furniture will not yet employ the use of business intelligence. However, it will target the integration of a business intelligence application when the company grows and its customers and sales increase. Waiting and not implementing a business intelligence application immediately will also give ample time for planning the program. Once the business has taken off and funds have increased through the company’s profits and through outside investors attracted through the company’s highly competent marketing strategies, business intelligence will be integrated. Because business intelligence will only be applied once the company is bigger and funds are enough to sustain the program, OLAP will be an option for Decor Furniture. This is because OLAP is multidimensional and will give a wider array of choices with regard to the tasks that need to be accomplished by the system. Data mining will not be used because some studies have shown that such procedures, such as the Market Basket Analysis, are not effective. Customers may buy a certain product for different reasons not simply because of certain aspects of their identity available in the data to be mined. Assessing Decor Furniture as a Small Business Before the advent of the internet, furniture was viewed in a company’s showroom, ordered, and only then delivered to the customer’s residence or office. This process can be cut short, however, by allowing DecorFurniture. com to go online. The strategy to be applied will involve the creation of a company website which will not only serve as a brochure for the different products but which will also integrate a purchasing feature where customers can order their products and pay via PayPal or other such B2C systems. This allows the company to reach more individuals than it usually would. Even individuals not living near Decor Furniture’s main stores would be able to view and opt to buy their products. Marketing Included in the strategy planning for Decor Furniture is its aspect as an online market. As stated above, Decor Furniture will be placed on the online market because this broadens its pool of customers. Marketing will include the use of online ads, electronically mailing potential customers, and having different kinds of advertising multimedia, such as commercials on YouTube for the promotion of the products. The company’s site will be made sure to have an attractive and welcoming template. Navigation around the site will be made easier with a site map and promos will be placed on the home page to attract the potential customers to continue on to the viewing of the products. Marketing programs will be outsourced. This is to reduce costs, via cheaper labor in the outsourcing companies, and to ensure that the newly started online market of Decor Furniture will be marketed expertly even from the start. Outsourcing may be stopped in the future once the company has gained ground on the World Wide Web. Legal Matters – Privacy, IPR and Tax Along with the uncharted land of the web, many companies starting an e-business are unsure of the boundaries of their legal rights. Many customers are also afraid of violation of their own rights in purchasing over the internet. Privacy and stealing identity information keep customers on their guard. This will be avoided by including privacy policies or agreement terms on the site as well as by clear explanation of why certain information is being asked of the client. Proper paper work will be filed in the local government to ensure that taxation of the transactions done on the DecorFurniture. com site will be assured. This will ensure that the e-business’ dealings are legal and accounted for. This is probably the most essential legal aspect the company faces because its main purpose for going online is to be able to establish more customers through an online market. The domain name, company logo and tag lines will be copyrighted as well to protect the company from imitations and posers. Management Issues An important management trend that is good to keep in mind when dealing with online business is outsourcing. Running an e-business entails paying attention to numerous details that aren’t part of what your business is really about. Advertisements, creation of web designs, writing of the site’s content are all things that will be outsource in DecorFurniture. com. Going online has given Decor Furniture access to the entire world as a pool for potential customers. Through international shipping, global service will be offered. Shipping insurance as well as local tax in the customer’s country will not be part of the services available to the international customers. This will extend the possibilities for DecorFurniture. com and will take full advantage of its choice to go online. Conclusion Decor Furniture can maximize its online presence through the use of the various resources it can find available on the internet. Developing a strong presence online is essential in order to attract new customers and to spread the company’s name. Creating an impressive web site and coupling this with effective marketing strategies will help Decor Furniture become a household name when it comes to online purchasing. However, in order for the company to best have its customers keep coming back, it has to establish a good relationship with the. This can be established through CRM applications that will be integrated into the company. Eventual use of business intelligence applications, which will be capable of analyzing sales data, will also assist the company in getting to know better the customers and target audience for sales. Decor Furniture has a bright future ahead on the World Wide Web. Unlike many dot com businesses, it has a very good chance at becoming a stable success online. Through careful planning of business strategies and implementation of the same, this e-business will be booming in no time. There are many features of e-business that put it above offline businesses. Numerous aids and options are available to the online company and it can more easily reach a larger audience of individuals. However, there must be proper planning, implementation of these plans, and use of e-business strategies in order for success to be attained. Reference Vindevogel, B. , Van den Poel, Dirk, and Wets, Geert. â€Å"Why promotion strategies based on market basket analysis don’t work. † Expert Systems with Applications, 28 (1991): 583-590. How to cite Taking Dà ©corFurniture.com to the Next Level of E-Commerce, Papers

A comparison and analysis of The Red Room, The Monkyes Paw and the Signalman Essay Example For Students

A comparison and analysis of The Red Room, The Monkyes Paw and the Signalman Essay This essay will compare and analyse the Red Room, The Monkeys Paw and the Signalman and will look at how each author build up tension and suspense. We are exposed to graphic imagery everyday in books, films etc and so is a common thing to us but people in the pre 20th century who were shocked by the tension created by the authors were as when we watch or read a book or film with tension in it we usually know when to expect it. When making a scary film, it is a lot easier to make a viewer scared as you can use music, sound effects, surprise elements and many other attributions, however, when writing a book the whole approach seems to be completely different. The writers have no special effects or music to tempt the reader, so they use very strong expressions and describe the scenery enough for you to feel you are actually there and have a picture of the scene in your mind. This also gives your imagination the chance to play a part which can sometimes be the more elaborate and chilling in design then the original description. In the Monkeys Pay the author starts by describing the night, the night was cold and wet, this is a typical ghost story setting and instantly knows that it is a sign of danger and some sort of trouble. At the start we see a close competition of chess between father and son. This competition is also cosy and safe. However in The Red Room, H.G. Wells gets the story started on the main topic straight away. In the opening paragraph he mentions ghosts and hints death by describing the womans eyes as pale eyes which is associated with death. Many subtle threats are made in the first paragraph, It is your own choosing, which is repeated twice and she swayed her head slowly from side to side. Also in the opening of the story we see a servant/master relationship between the first two characters which we were introduced to. The opening line Halloa! Below there! plunges us immediately into the story, telling us that we must be attentive in order to follow the story. It also makes our imagination start to ask questions, for example; who is saying this? Who are they speaking to? This is a good method to gradually build up tension. The ghosts repetitive behavior makes us feel anxious. The ghost always shouts, Halloa! Below there! He waves his arm and covers his eyes. Dickens portrayal of the tunnel and the cutting is very detailed, and is expressed through use of onametipeigei words. For instance; zigzag and gloomy these words get an apparent image of the cutting and this tunnel, resulting in us feeling we are involved in the story. The signalmans appearance is quite peculiar as is his behavior. He looks at the bell when it does not ring and talks of a ghost. His eyebrows are thick and his skin tone is odd. Painting a picture of a mysterious looking man. When we hear the signalmans story, it is one with such a horrific plot that we become drawn in. When the author continuously interrupts it, we become more anxious and become desperate to hear the rest of the story. Dickens use of painful personification, like angry sunset and violent pulsation contributes greatly to the stories impact. Short sentences and repetition also make us feel tense. Possibly the fact that Dickens does not give the signalman a name shows that he is considered unimportant to most people. Dickens may want us to argue against this view and to think that all human beings are important. .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .postImageUrl , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:hover , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:visited , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:active { border:0!important; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:active , .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75 .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue025233820131971778702d2132fed75:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Bean Trees By Kingsolver EssayDickens uses his narrative style to set the scene and describe the movement of characters. The narrator describes the railway cutting signal box as a solitary and dismal place, with dripping wet walls of jagged stone, and appeals to our senses by saying that that the tunnel has an earthy, deadly smell. The narrator also observes the signalman attentively and describes his movement. The following quotes from The Signalman show this, He was several times interrupted by the little bell, and had to read off messages and send replies, he continues, I observed him to be remarkably exact and vigilant, breaking off his disclosure at a syllable, and re maining silent until what he had to do was finished. This allows us to imagine that we are in the room with the signalman, watching him as he works, noting every detail of his movement and actions. Dickens writing style makes us feel we are actually there, watching the events of the story. The following quote describes demonstrates the effects of Dickens narrative style, it was made through a clammy stone that became oozier and wetter as I went down. This allows us to feel as if we are walking down the zigzag path. Although this is very realistic, this style has limits. This also adds to the mysterious atmosphere.

Principles of safe supervision of children in the home free essay sample

General supervision would be when you are aware of what the child is doing and checking on them regularly. This may be interpreted as keeping an attentive eye from a distance e. g when children are playing on a carpet or when a baby is sleeping. The element of danger when adopting close supervision would be less than in the other wo levels of supervision. Once the required level of supervision has been determined, it is important to consider the following disciplines in order to ensure safe supervision and to make all other family members aware of them also. Do not let children play outside unsupervised All tools equipment and chemicals must be safely stored away in a locked shed or garage All paved areas must be safe Fences should be sound Equipment for outdoors must be checked daily and set up properly (use logs) Gates must be securely fastened Dustbins/wheelie bins/re-cycling bins must not be accessible to children If pets are present then childrens play areas must be free of pet food and waste Areas of water including butts or ponds and sand pits must be securely fenced off or covered. We will write a custom essay sample on Principles of safe supervision of children in the home or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page All plant life in the garden must be safe Clothes lines/rotary driers must be safe and not trailing. Use of seat belts for adults Tax, MOT, business use insurance Seats/restraints for children Child locks on doors Getting in and out the car should be safe Driving safely at all times When using other peoples cars ensuring they are safe. By Public Transport: Checking that everyone stands back from the curb edge when at a bus stop or train platform Ensuring that young children wear safety harnesses Buggies and prams in good working order Knowing your Journey and planning your route beforehand Children should sit next to you on busses/trains Children should be taught how to stay safe when near to/ crossing the road. Green cross code according to age Always put yourself between the road and the child hen possible Use restraints/reins where applicable Dont allow children to run ahead Teach children about stranger danger particularly when in parks and adventure playground. Ultimately, once disciplines have been put in place in the different areas when supervising children, then this will ultimately assist when determining the levels of supervision required as the safety of the child is paramount in any home based child care setting. Also having procedures in place when out and about in case children get lost or separated is considered as good practice for any child-minder.

The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essays

The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essays The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Essay The Effects of Globalisation on Labour Markets, Productivity and Inflation Nigel Pain, Isabell Koske OECD Meeting of Heads of National Economic Research Organisations at OECD Headquarters June 15 2007, Paris. Over the past decades international economic integration has proceeded rapidly. Trade in Goods and Services Exports plus imports to GDP (current US$) Foreign Direct Investment Assets plus liabilities to GDP (current US$) 300% 250% 200% 150% 100% 50% World OECD 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% OECD World Non-OECD Non-OECD 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 0% 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Globalisation has been proceeding for many years. The pace of economic integration has been particularly marked since the mid1990s – suggesting structural changes in the impact may have occurred. 2 2 New developments that may have affected the impact of globalisation on OECD economies The marked increase in the extent and pace of integration since the mid-1990s The integration of China and India into the global economy – significantly boosting global labour supply Development of international production networks: the fragmentation of production across borders via international outsourcing and offshoring; international trade in tasks Foreign competition spreading into previously sheltered sectors and occupations via ICT-enabled offshoring and market entry. Financial globalisation Such developments, common to all OECD economies, have prompted a re-assessment of the impact of globalisation. Globalisation now affects particular tasks and occupations as 3 3 well as firms/sectors. The Globalisation and Structural Adjustment Project 2005-07 This had three main components: The macroeconomic effects of globalisation labour markets, inflation, policy challenges from the future evolution of globalisation. The sectoral impact of trade on labour markets The effects of the outsourcing of business services The project examined the policy challenges from: The spread of global trade production networks and IT-enabled global sourcing. The impact of non-OECD economies on commodity markets and competition pressures in the OECD. Financial globalisation. A final report was provided to Ministers in May 2007 4 4 The current phase of globalisation has coincided with structural reforms in OECD labour markets The impact of globalisation is occurring against a background of widespread reforms to labour market institutions (see the Restated OECD Jobs Strategy) – for example: Reductions in product market and labour market regulations Activation of the unemployed Increased responsiveness of wage setting to supply/demand pressures Reductions in tax wedges All these affect wage and employment outcomes. Other things being equal, they should have acted to reduce structural unemployment. Attempts to quantify the impact of globalisation have to allow for other (potentially endogenous) sources of structural change. 5 5 The labour share of GDP has fallen, but real wages have grown robustly in most OECD countries. Labour Income Shares 0. 7 0. 65 0. 6 0. 55 0. 5 0. 45 0. 4 1980 1 2 OECD economies (weighted average) Real Compensation per Employee 150 140 OECD1 USA JPN FRA 110 100 DEU 1980 1 Income share of labour 1 130 120 Income share of employees2 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Dependent employees and self-employed. Dependent employees (private and government sectors). Weighted average; country coverage varies according to data availability. The decline in the labour share began before the mid-1990s. In accounting terms, the labour share decline is due to labour productivity rising faster than real wages. 6 6 Real wage growth over the past decade is not correlated with trade openness. 5% 4% GRC POL ISL CZE NOR TUR PRT SWE GBR USA FIN DNK NZL KOR AUS CAN FRA CHE AUT JPN ESP DEU ITA MEX SVK HUN IRL BEL NLD Real wage growth1 3% 2% 1% 0% -1% -2% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% Trade openness2 1Annual averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 7 Real wage growth was somewhat stronger in countries where openness rose the fastest. 5% 4% GRC NOR PRT SWE ISL POL CZE HUN Real wage growth1 3% TUR IRL SVK GBR 2% USA NZL DNK FIN KOR FRA AUS CAN BEL 1% AUT CHE NLD JPN DEU 0% ITA ESP -1% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% MEX LUX 12% Change in trade openness2 averages, 1995 to most recent observation. 2Percenta ge point change in the ratio of exports plus imports to GDP, average 1995 – 2006. 1Annual 8 8 Despite real wage growth, earnings inequality has risen, especially in the top half of the distribution. Earnings inequality in OECD countries P90, P50, and P10 denote the 90th, 50th, and 10th percentiles of the distribution of earnings for full-time employees. Source: OECD Employment Outlook (2007), forthcoming. Wages of more skilled workers have risen relative to those of less skilled workers, though not in all countries. This is one source of political concerns about globalisation. 9 9 Possible labour market impacts of trade and international production networks Lower-skilled tasks can be moved to lower (unit) cost locations potential productivity gains for domestic industries rising trade will coincide with rising skill-related premia Substitution of employment between home and host locations is more likely for cost-saving investments and the larger the host relative to the home country. Possible implications include: Domestic labour demand is more sensitive to domestic wages Employment adjusts more rapidly to changes in desired labour demand (via output, real labour costs, technical change etc. ) Firms have an exit option which, even if not exercised, raises the relative bargaining power of employers. Impact on wage bargains will depend on the preferences of those involved the level at which bargaining takes place. 10 10 Foreign affiliate employment rose relative to domestic employment between 1992-2003 in all sectors in the G3 Ratio of U. S. Foreign Affiliate Employment to Employment in the U. S. (%) Business Services Financial Services Telecoms Transportation Trade Transport Equipment Electrical Optical Machinery Metals Chemicals Pulp Paper Textiles Food, Beverages Tobacco 0. 0 10. 0 20. 0 30. 0 40. 0 50. 0 60. 0 70. 0 2003 1992 There are marked differences across sectors. The data for Japan and Germany show a similar pattern to the US. 11 11 Empirical evidence from the GSA project (and IMF work) suggests globalisation is affecting the labour market. No evidence of aggregate impact on employment levels or growth. Globalisation is one factor contributing to the decline in the labour income share and the rising returns for skilled workers. But it only accounts for a small part of these trends. Technological change and changes in labour market institutions are more important. Evidence for some industries, especially in manufacturing, that globalisation raises the wage elasticity of labour demand: Outward FDI raises the long-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 8%1. 0%) Trade raises the short-run wage elasticity of labour demand (0. 2% in mid1980s 0. % early 2000s) For the US, employment growth in US-owned foreign affiliates has positive correlation with employment at home; for Japan, the correlation is negative (controlling for sales and costs). 12 12 Globalisation also has positive effects on productivity levels and growth in OECD economies. Greater specialisation in areas of comparative advantage. Better access to foreign kno wledge (inward and outward FDI). Using intermediate inputs produced offshore may boost home productivity growth (Grossman and Rossi-Hansberg, 2006) Benefits of enhanced competitive pressure in product markets. The OECD Growth Project found that a 10% pt increase in trade openness was associated with a 4% rise in income per capita. Work for GSA (for 9 global regions) found that enhanced openness raises the rate of convergence of GDP per capita to US levels. Labour market work for GSA found evidence that outward FDI and the international outsourcing of intermediate inputs can raise productivity in home economies. 13 Summary of labour market impacts of globalisation (from trade and FDI – migration will add to these) Globalisation is associated with rising living standards The benefits are not shared automatically by all workers Globalisation is one factor generating structural change The ongoing globalisation process is one factor helping to dampen wage inflation and reduce the labour income share. These may be one-time changes, albeit prolonged. The higher wage elasticity of labour demand raises potential gains in employment from labour-market reforms, but also raises the potential volatility of workers labour market outcomes. Labour market developments are becoming more closely linked with those in other countries. One channel for global factors to influence domestic cost growth. Increasingly important to put policies in place to help labour market adjustment in OECD economies. 14 There are reasons to believe that the labour market challenges could increase further. Vertical multinationals production fragmentation become more likely as trade and communication costs fall and as location becomes possible in countries with different factor endowments. China India have significant reserves of underemployed labour. OECD estimates suggest that up to 20% of occupations in the major economies are potentially offshorable (high ICT content). 15 Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures wage growth. 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 15 10 5 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? Total Compensation per Employee (in %) 10 30 Japan ?Total Compensation 25 per Employee (in %) 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Unemployment Gap (in %) 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 Euro Area United Kingdom 16 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures unit cost growth. 15 ? ULC (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 30 25 20 15 ?ULC (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? ULC (in %) Japan ?ULC (in %) 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 3. 5 -2 -1 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 5 6 7 Euro Area United Kingdom 17 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the short-run association between labour market pressures inflation. 15 ? PCP (in %) 15 10 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 -1 -0. 5 -5 0 0. 5 1 Unemployment Gap (in %) 1. 5 2 ? PCP (in %) 10 1975-1984 1985-1994 1995-2006 5 0 -2 -1 United States 15 ? PCP (in %) 30 25 20 15 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 0. 5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3 -2 -1 10 5 0 Japan ?PCP (in %) 10 0 -1 -0. 5 Unemployment Gap (in %) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Euro Area United Kingdom 18 The lines are fitted regression lines through the actual quarterly data for the period. Globalisation has coincided with changes in the relationship between labour market pressures inflation. The short-run Phillips curve has become more horizontal over time, both for labour costs and for price inflation. Also apparent using the change rather than the level of inflation. Movements in the unemployment (and output) gap have smaller effects on inflation than before. This can reflect many factors – globalisation, other structural labour market changes, better anchored inflation expectations and changes in monetary policy frameworks. The flattening of the Phillips curve began before globalisation accelerated in the mid-1990s: Better anchored inflation expectations may be more important. The role of globalisation is an empirical matter. Competition could even make prices more responsive to activity. 19 The impact of globalisation on price inflation is examined in Pain, Koske and Sollie (2006). The analysis has three steps: Calculation of the direct impact of rising lower-cost imports from emerging economies on inflation rates in selected OECD economies using a simple accounting framework. Analysis of the impact of global economic conditions on oil and non-oil commodity prices. Empirical analysis of the wider impact of globalisation on consumer prices in 21 OECD economies, over 1980-2005 Test whether inflation dynamics changed in the mid-1990s. Quantification of the impact of globalisation on prices and inflation through a scenario analysis that distinguishes the impact of non-commodity and commodity import prices. 20 [1] Main findings of the accounting analysis: The combined impact effect of lower-cost imports from China and other dynamic Asian economies has reduced domestic inflation by 0. percentage points per annum in the United States (from 1996 to 2005); by 0. 3 percentage points per annum in the euro area (from 2000 to 2005). Calculations from a number of studies (Federal Reserve, ECB) suggest that imports from lower cost producers have pushed down non-commodity import price inflation by between 1 and 2 percentage points per annum over the last decade. 21 [2] Gl obalisation and commodity prices: empirical results. Strong GDP growth in the non-OECD economies since 2000 has been an important factor behind the recent growth of real oil prices and real metals prices. A scenario analysis of setting the growth rate of non-OECD economies equal to the (lower) growth rate of the OECD economies from 2000 onwards reveals that oil prices would have been 20-40% lower than the baseline in the fourth quarter of 2005; real metals prices would have been 10% lower than the baseline. This removes some, but not all of the strong growth in oil and metals prices over recent years. 22 [3] The price equation estimated jointly (SUR) for 21 OECD countries using quarterly data for 1980-2005 is: ? ln P = ? + i,t 0i ? ? SH M SH ? ln P ? M ? [1 ? M ln P ] ln C ? ? 1i ? i,t ? 1 1i i, t ? 1 i, t ? 1 1i i,t ? 1 i,t ? 1 ? ? 4 4 4 M + ? ? ? ln P C + ? GAP + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j + ? ? ji ? ln Pi,t ? j +? ji i,t ? j 3i i,t ? 1 it j =1 j=0 j =0 P, PM and C denote consumer prices (CED), import prices of goods plus services and domestic unit labour costs MSH denotes the import share of domestic demand (rolling regressions without this term showed a rise in ? 1 over time) GAP is th e domestic output gap Cross-equation parameter restrictions imposed if data permits ? 1 found to be significantly larger from 1995Q1 onwards 23 3] The impact of globalisation on price inflation The long-run influence of import prices on domestic consumer prices has risen since the mid-1990s. This reflects two factors: a rise in import penetration in OECD economies; the impact of import competition on competitors’ prices. The impact of import prices on domestic consumer prices is larger in small open economies. The cyclical sensitivity of inflation to domestic economic conditions declined between 1981-1994 and 1995-2005. No robust significant additional impact from the global output gap. Global conditions are already reflected in import prices). The separate commodity and consumer price findings are combined in a set of scenario analyses. These show that ex-ante inflationary pressures in most OECD economies would have been moderately higher in the absence of globalisation 24 Impact on consumer price inflation from removing globalisation effects 2000-05. Average percentage point difference per annum Commodity . Non-commodity Component . component . Japan Canada OECD United States United Kingdom Germany France Euro Area Italy Net effect -0. 4 -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. -0. 2 0. 0 0. 2 0. 4 Lower bound of commodity import price effect (20% oil, 10% metals) Upper bound of commodity import price effect (40% oil, 10% metals) Lower bound of non-commodity import price effect (1%) Upper bound of non-commodi ty import price effect (2%) Lower bound of net effect Upper bound of net effect Range of possible impact These estimates are for given labour costs. To the extent that globalisation also affected labour cost growth, the net implicit disinflationary impact of globalisation may be even higher. 25 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [1] Globalisation is clearly affecting labour market outcomes in the OECD, and also domestic price inflation. Can the various impacts can be expected to persist for some time? The existing impact appears modest – will it rise in the future? Estimating underlying inflationary pressures is more complicated: Globalisation affects commodity and non-commodity prices The flatter Phillips curve raises the difficulties of identifying where the economy is relative to potential. Does this have implications for the conduct of monetary policy? 26 Concluding comments and issues for discussion [2] Globalisation raises the need for labour market flexibility (job reallocation) but also raises fears about job insecurity and widening earnings inequality. What are the appropriate policies to deal with these concerns? Enhancing potential job creation and labour market adjustment: greater product market competition reduced employment protection legislation Education/training policies to equip workers with general skills Direct adjustment assistance to displaced workers: Transitional income support (and health coverage) Full occupational pension portability Active labour market programmes for updating skills and improving job search. 27

Context and Meaning, Teaching Vocabulary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Context and Meaning, Teaching Vocabulary - Essay Example The students can be shown separate pieces of silverware, which they know (a fork, a spoon, a knife), and then told that all they are called silverware. That is the teacher goes from particular to general concepts when introducing the word. Using authentic materials can be of a great advantage to teach students word meaning, because they are the real examples of how the word is usually used. However, such materials can be inappropriate for beginners because they may not be ready to understand and comprehend the presented information. In addition, teaching meaning, I believe, should not be separated from teaching other concepts of the language, so it might be more useful to use materials specifically developed to meet the learning needs of the students. For example, if the students have just learnt Present Perfect Tense, it is good to use Perfect structures in the materials for teaching meaning in order for the students to both revise and strengthen the knowledge of Present Perfect, and learn the new vocabulary on the basis of already acquired knowledge. In addition, when authentic materials contain many unfamiliar or new grammatical structures, they are more difficult for the students to understand, and, as a result, t he meaning of the separate words may be more difficult to explain too. The following text can be used to teach vocabulary to beginners. The words to introduce would be the names of the house premises: living room, kitchen, dining room, bathroom, bedroom. The text is accompanied by illustrations: a layout of the house, or pictures of separate rooms. The teacher reads the text showing each room on the

Social work; Critically evaluate its implications for social work Essay

Social work; Critically evaluate its implications for social work practice in challenges in transracial adoption and racial identity - Essay Example In addition, social workers work together with birth families to establish their abilities to continue to engage in their children’s lives as well as to parent, and/or to cope with cessation of parental rights. Social workers assist with placement transitions, and give post-adoption services in order to guarantee enduring and strong adoptive families. It is apparent that adoption is an alternative for young children and older teens, for children of varying ethnic and racial background, and for children with diverse educational, developmental as well as medical needs. This paper will discuss different aspects surrounding transracial adoptions, in particular, the transracial adoption of black children. Transracial adoption is the joining of parents and children of different racial background together in adoptive homes as well as families. It usually occurs through varying types of domestic adoption such as foster care, stepchildren and children in interracial marriages, and international adoption. In transracial adoption, the issue of racial identity features prominently (Lee 2003, 712). Some individuals argue that transracial adoptions will lead to loss of racial identity, particularly if a child is adopted in a family of different race at a very young age. Racial or ethnic identity issue concerns the use of racial or ethnic self-descriptors among transracial adoptees. It also involves attitudes of adopted children towards their race and determines whether they are comfortable or proud with their ethnicity and race. One of the significant elements of transracial adoption is the actual relationship between ethnic and racial occurrences of transracial adoptees and their psychologic al adjustments (Steinberg & Hall 2011, 262). Transracial adoptees exhibit a great deal of variability in their racial or ethnic identities. They have considerably lower racial or ethnic identities compared to same-race adoptees. Domestic

Aspects of Family Law

Aspects of Family Law Children are the future and the care which is given to the welfare, education and protection of children is widely recognized as paying dividends in their later years. Children are one of the most vulnerable beings in our society and that is why the protection of the children are one of the most important rights to uphold in society. This assignment will critically discuss areas that uphold these rights such as the constitution regarding articles such as 41 and 42, legislation, various legal and social policies and children in the criminal justice system. This assignment will also include three recommendations about improving the position and welfare of children in the Irish society. CONSTITUTION The first area that upholds children rights is the Irish Constitution, Bunreacht na hEireann. This fundamental legal document sets out how Ireland should be governed and the rights of Irish citizens, (Constitution n.d). In the constitution, Article 41[1] refers to the family. This article gives the family rights, which outweigh any other rights. It is a special protection from the State to grant the ideal environment to raise a child, (Ferguson and Kenny 1995). The State protects and values the family but only as a unit. This unit refers to a married family, which concludes that this protection is only to a married family. The family unit in Ireland has autonomy over and above that of the individual members of the family, (Geoffrey 2003).   Once the parents are not married, the father has no constitutional rights to his child, (Nestor 2004). Article 41 enshrines the protection of the family from undue interference by the State and titled the balance institutionally towards the enchantment of parental rights and the minimum intervention end of the continuum, (Duncan 1993). Article 42[2] states that the very first people to educate a child are the parents. This is a duty that is imposed by the Constitution and in return for this duty, the custody and guardianship are guaranteed to the family. The State guardian of the common good also provides free education for the children. On the other hand, Article 42 is not all just about education. Article 42.5[3] concludes that when parents fail to look after and care correctly after their children, the State will step in and intervene. The precautions that will occur will be the State becoming the parent of the child or find substitute parents. The factors that allows the State to intervene range from child abuse, neglect and very serious cases. However the Constitution still did not define the rights of children as distinct from those of the Family, (Childrens Rights Alliance, Childrens Rights 2012). With this article, children were still seen as a possession or belonging and not an individual with rights. On the 10th November 2012, the people of Ireland held a referendum in order to change to text of Article 42.5. Article 42.5 was deleted and Article 42A was inserted, (Quinn 2012). The legislative perspective of this Act was about the childs best interest and since it was enacted children were granted the same fundamental and unenumerated rights as adults, (Childrens Rights Alliance, Childrens Rights 2012). This Act puts children first and sees a child not just as a belonging. In addition, Article 42A gives the child a choice to make their own decision but the views of the child shall be made certain of balance with regard to age and maturity of child. Before the referendum, there were some serious tragedies, one horrible case, in what most people until this day say, the children involved in this disaster were failed by everyone around them, even Judge Miriam Reynolds (RIP) agreed with this statement[4]. Mrs A, a mother of six children, was sentenced due to her conviction for incest, neglect and ill-treatment. The reason everyone had failed these children was the fact the Western Health Board had been involved since 1996, but the children had not been taken into care until 2004. Ms Laverne McGuiness, National Director of Integrated Services Directorate in the HSE commented on the situation, children let down badly by societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.we can ensure in as far as possible, that no other child, as to face such an unspeakable tragedy ever again. Since horrible tragedies like this, the childs best interest will always be put first, from this ever happening again. Article 42A is there in the constitution to specifically protect children from these horrible situations they happen to be in. The Constitution is the fundamental law of State. The Constitution constructs the intercommunication between the State and adults, including children and gives the direction to the Oireachtas and Courts on how to balance each of their interests and rights. Article 42A takes into consideration the vulnerable situation of a child, in that they are largely dependent on adults for their care and are often powerless to justify and uphold their own rights. The Constitution was amended so that family and the child can be separated and that the childs life and rights are mirrored to the parents. Furthermore, it was amended to put in place for a more efficient child protection system, (Childrens Rights Alliance, Childrens Rights 2012). On behalf of the child, 42A is a constitutional development for the protection of children and with hope, no more cases such as the Roscommon Child Care Case will happen again. A recommendation about improving the childs safety and welfare in Irish society will start with amending our Constitution. The Constitution, regarding the child has now improved but there is still one section, which needs developing: Article 41 concerning the Family. Article 41 does not recognized an unmarried couple with a child as a family, (Nestor 2004). This is a grave problem, as unmarried parents are not considered a family. Article 41 does not protect unmarried couples as it does with married couples. This gives problems with the constitutional rights and there will be a problem to intervene. The father also has no custody or guardianship to this child, if he and the mother are not married, unless he applies for the guardianship. This is very unfair, outdated and should be changed. It should be changed for the childs safety and welfare as it is not the childs concern if their parents are married or unmarried. LEGISLATION. The Child Care Act 1991 is a primary piece of legislation, which safeguards a childs health and safety[5]. It regulates all child protection and it imposes a positive mandatory obligation on the HSE to promote the welfare of a child in its area who are not receiving adequate care and protection (Ireland, Department of Children and Youth Affairs, 2010). The Child Care Act 1991 (which I will state 1991 Act for the remainder of this assignment), is an acknowledgment to Article 42.5 to specify the rights and provide the needs for children. It is a clear recognition of states obligations with respect to the protection of children at risk, (Ferguson and Kenny 1995). (Nestor 2004) The legislative prospective of the courts will always be in the childs best interest. [1] Article 41 °. [2] Article 42 °. [3] Article 42.5 °. [4] Roscommon Child Care Case. [5] Child Care Act 1991.

Organisational cultures Essay

Introduction: defining culture The concept of culture has become increasingly significant in education during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced interest may be understood as an example of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those leadership and man- agement models which stress the structural and technical aspects of schools and colleges. The focus on the intangible world of values and attitudes is a useful counter to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a more balanced portrait of educational institutions. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather then their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organi- sation and how these individual perceptions coalesce into shared meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization: Beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value-preferences which influence how they behave and how they view the behaviour of other members. These norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156). The developing importance of culture arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more effectively within, this informal domain of the values and beliefs of teachers, support staff and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and O’Neill (1994) both stress the increasing significance of cultural factors in leadership and manage- ment. The latter charts the appearance of cultural ‘labels’ and suggests why they have become more prevalent: The increased use of such cultural descriptors in the literature of educational management is significant because it reflects a need for educational organiza- tions to be able to articulate deeply held and shared  values in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to new, uncertain and potentially  threatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and meaning for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of visible and certain organizational structures and relationships. In this sense the analysis and influence of organizational culture become essential management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (O’Neill, 1994, p.116) The shift towards self-management in many countries reinforces the notion of schools and colleges as unique entities with their own distinctive features or ‘cul- ture’. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater diversity and, in Eng- land, this is one of the Government’s explicit aims. Caldwell and Spinks (1992) argue that there is ‘a culture of self- management’. The essential components of this culture are the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility. Societal culture Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is also the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of national or societal culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that ‘the field of educational administration †¦ has largely ignored the influence of societal culture’ but their work has contributed to an increasing awareness of this concept. Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of context and stress the need to avoid ‘decontextualized paradigms’ (p.1) in researching and analysing educa- tional systems and institutions: The field of educational leadership and management has developed along eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories †¦ Frequently, either a narrow ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is context †¦ context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and practice. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2) Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that ‘policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of different cultural contexts can quite transform the latter’s salience’ while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that ‘all theories and interpretations of practice must be ‘grounded’ in the specific context †¦ before they can be regarded as useful’. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION48 Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) have given sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction between societal and organizational culture: Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods. School leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis) Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven ‘dimensions’ of societal culture,  each of which is expressed as a continuum: 1 Power-distributed/power concentrated: power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated. 2 Group-oriented/self-oriented: people in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more independent and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs. 3 Consideration/aggression: in aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competi- tion dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. 4 Proactivism/fatalism: this dimension reflects the proactive or ‘we can change things around here’ attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others – a fatalistic perspective. 5 Generative/replicative: some cultures appear more predisposed towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere. 6 Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in limited relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tend to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, patronage and friendship, than to impartially applied rules. 7 Male influence/female influence: in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and professional life is perpetuated. In others, women have come to play a significant role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6). This model can be applied to educational systems in different countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education: 49ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES †¢ Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. ‘The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system †¦ China might be regarded as the archetypal high power-distance (power-concentrated) society’ (p.60). †¢ Chinese culture is group oriented. ‘Collective benefits [are] seen as more important than individual needs’ (p.61). †¢ Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. ‘The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving priority to people’s relationships. The purpose of education is to mould every individual into a harmonious member of society’ (p.62). †¢ Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute such inequalities to the continuing dominance of patriarchy. Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate framework for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. Central features of organisational culture Organisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003): 1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values: ‘Shared values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking are all different ways of describing culture †¦ These pat- terns of understanding also provide a basis for making one’s own behaviour sen- sible and meaningful’ (Morgan, 1997, p.138). This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that ‘there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture’. Dissonance is more likely in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also exist in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a ‘balkanized’ culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groups: LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50 Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, socialize most often in the staffroom. The existence of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on learning, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum. Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their own dis- tinctive ‘subculture’ and middle managers, or ‘middle level leaders’ as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to cultivate this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)  imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture. 2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.’s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schools: As staff talked, worked and relaxed together, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others’ behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers †¦ Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the uniqueness of each school’s norms. These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff – ‘the way we do things around here’. We have already noted, however, that there may be several subcul- tures based on the professional and personal interests of different groups. These typically have internal coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify senior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individuals: SMTs in our research developed a ‘culture of teamwork’ †¦ A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views †¦ there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and contact with those outside †¦ [who] were excluded from the inner world of the team. 3 Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are  used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools, in particular, are rich in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150  and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models: ‘Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools †¦ [they] have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby abstract values can be conveyed †¦ Sym- bols are central to the process of constructing meaning’. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2). School culture may be symbolized through three modes: (a) Conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims. (b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction. (c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176). Schein (1997, p.248) argues that ‘rites and rituals [are] central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions’. 4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture: ‘Choice and recognition of heroes †¦ occurs within the cultural boundaries identified through the value filter †¦ The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases.’ This feature is evident in South Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the South African fast bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing ‘hero’, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school. Developing a culture of learning in South Africa As we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predominant culture reflects the wider social structure of the post-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education. Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture: †¢ Spirituality: life is viewed as vitalistic rather than mechanistic. †¢ Harmony: humans and nature live interdependently and in harmony. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 †¢ Movement: rhythm, music and dance. †¢ Verve: high levels of stimulation. †¢ Affect: emotions and feelings. †¢ Communalism: social connectedness and an awareness of responsibilities to the  group transcending individual privileges. †¢ Expressive individualism: genuine personal expression. †¢ Oral tradition: oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. †¢ Social time perspective: time as social rather than material space (adapted from Ngcobo 2003, p.224). Ngcobo (2003) notes that these cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became particularly significant as schools began to change their racial composition in response to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny admission to students on the basis of race. For- merly white schools, with a predominantly ‘European’ culture, began to assimilate learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two contrasting examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black). This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to ‘the strong integrative culture it promotes’ (Ngcobo 2003, p.230). The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the ‘weapons’ of the black majority was for young- sters to ‘strike’ and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be absent from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that ‘the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the â€Å"breakdown† in the â€Å"culture of learning† †¦ continued unabated’. This issue surfaced in Bush and Anderson’s (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that: †¢ the school is striving to instill in the minds of learners that ‘education is their future’ †¢ to show the importance of education within and outside the school †¢ to provide a conducive educational environment †¢ to develop a culture of learning. 53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES The absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africa’s integrated schools. It seems likely that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in individual schools. Leadership and culture We noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating core values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture: Few heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the degree to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads †¦Ã‚  will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the school less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making: words, actions, artefacts and settings. Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are ‘founders’ of their school’s culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads dismantled the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example: ‘All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expected to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent.’ Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture. Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture: †¢ Document the school’s history to be codified and passed on. †¢ Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 †¢ Review the school’s rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. †¢ Exploit and develop ceremony. †¢ Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstream  activity. This provides access to the informal communications network. One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff selection process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the hope  that those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likely to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so. Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to distinguish between ‘universalistic’ and ‘particularistic’ approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be ‘more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post’ (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, ‘selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities’ (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders. Using cultural criteria to appoint new staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was ‘posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts’ (p.153). He point to ‘multiple barri- ers to change’ including: †¢ staff wanted ‘top down’ change and not ‘ownership’ †¢ ‘we’ve always done it this way’ †¢ individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture †¢ staff blaming children’s home background for examination failure †¢ numerous personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4). This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, ‘[it is] dangerous †¦ for  managers to move too fast on cultural change’ (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to ‘mould’ culture but rejects the belief that ‘something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers’. 55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES Hargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that ‘most people’s beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow’. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to rapid change: †¢ The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly critical inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the prospect of staff redundancies or school closure. †¢ The leader is very charismatic, commanding instant trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. †¢ The leader succeeds a very poor principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60). These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, ‘if none of these special conditions applies, assume that cultural change will be rather slow’. Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his ‘leadership forces hierarchy’, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadership: The net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond together  students, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school †¦ As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance. Limitations of organisational culture The concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003): 1 The notion of ‘organisational culture’ may simply be the imposition of the leaders’ values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. ‘Shared’ cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to ‘a process of ideological  control’ and warns of the risk of ‘manipulation’: Ideological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy †¦ such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust †¦ where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite manipulative and totalitarian in its influence. (pp.150-1) Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the ‘dark underworld’ of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics: ‘The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and rituals  were capable of being subverted by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools’. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term ‘resistance group’ to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture. 2 The portrayal of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the evolution of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are vital components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002; Briggs 2003). In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the creation of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leader’s own values. 3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as before: A symbol can represent something which is ‘real’ in the sense that it †¦ acts as a surrogate for reality †¦ there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the fiction that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance †¦ in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166) Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual. When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best we  can †¦ however †¦ it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals. Conclusion: people and culture The belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper- ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a ‘one size fits all’ model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools. The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ‘ownership’ of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. ‘Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change’ (Morgan 1997, p.150). The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as significant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. ‘Even the most concrete and rational  aspects of organization – whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines – embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day’ (Morgan 1997, p.146). Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ‘ownership’ of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation. 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